Caries as an archaeological problem-solving tool: reconstructing subsistence patterns in late prehistoric west-central Tennessee
Main Article Content
Abstract
The dentition from two Middle Mississippian period (~AD 1100-1350) site samples (Gray Farm [~AD 1150-1400], Link/Slayden [~AD 1200-1400]) from the Kentucky Lake Reservoir of west-central Tennessee area are examined for the presence of caries to assess whether a maize-intensive subsistence economy is evident or the retention of the cultivation of domesticated native seeds (i.e., the Eastern Agricultural Complex). Given the absence of archaeological context, the caries prevalence operates as an archaeological problem-solving tool. The caries prevalence by tooth type are compared to a Late Woodland period (~AD 400-900) site sample (Hobbs) from the Kentucky Lake Reservoir as well as three unequivocal maize-intensive site samples from the Late Mississippian period (~AD 1300-1550) of East Tennessee. The Gray Farm site aligns statistically with the maize-intensive samples; Link/Slayden does not and resembles the caries prevalence of the Hobbs sample. The Mississippianization process in the Kentucky Lake Reservoir clearly varies in the adoption of maize as a primary cultigen. This may reflect the difference in geo-political location of Gray Farm and Link/Slayden relative to neighboring Mississippian economies, particularly to the east (Middle Cumberland Culture), or it may reflect potential temporal differences among the Middle Mississippian period settlements within the Kentucky Lake Reservoir.
References
REFERENCES
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Beahm, E.L. (2013). Mississippian polities in the Middle Cumberland region of Tennessee. (PhD Thesis). University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
Bass, Q.R., II. (1985). Sociopolitical and economic aspects of the Mississippian occupation in the Lower Tennessee River Valley. Manuscript on file, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro.
Beck Jr., R.A. (2003). Consolidation and hierarchy: Chiefdom variability in the Mississippian Southeast. American Antiquity, 68(4), 641-661.
Bense, J.A. (2016). Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: Paleoindian to World War I. New York, NY: Routledge.
Betsinger, T.K., & Smith, M.O. (2013). Caries prevalence and the late prehistoric Dallas phase: A regional cultural pattern of female maize consumption in late prehistoric East Tennessee. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, S150, 80.
Betsinger, T.K., & Smith, M.O. (2018). Regional differences in caries by sex and social status in late prehistoric East Tennessee. In S.C. Hodge, K. Schuler (Eds.), Bioarchaeology of the American Southeast: Approaches to bridging health and identity in the past (pp. 54-68). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Buikstra, J.E., & Beck, L.A. (Eds.). (2017). Bioarchaelogy: The contextual analysis of human remains. New York, NY: Routledge.
Buikstra, J.E., & Ubelaker, D.H. (1994). Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series.
Caselitz, P. (1998). Caries: Ancient plague of humankind. In K.W. Alt, F.W. Rösing, & M. Teschler-Nicola (Eds.), Dental Anthropology (pp. 203-226). Vienna: Springer.
Chapman, J. (2014). Tellico archaeology: 12,000 years of Native American history. University of Tennessee Press.
Cobb, C.R. (2003). Mississippian chiefdoms: How complex? Annual Review of Anthropology 32, 63 -84. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093244
Cobb, C.R., & Butler, B.M. (1992). The vacant quarter revisited: Late Mississippian abandonment of the lower Ohio Valley. American Antiquity, 67(4), 625-641. https://doi.org/10.2307/1593795
Cobb, J. E., & Faulkner, C. H. (1978). The Owl Hollow Project: Middle Woodland Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in the Eastern Highland Rim of Tennessee. Ms. on file, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC.
Dalan, R.A. (1997). The construction of Mississippian Cahokia. In T.R. Pauketat, & T.E. Emerson (Eds.), Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (pp. 89 -102). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Dowd, J.T. (2008). The Cumberland stone-box burials of middle Tennessee. Tennessee Archaeology, 3(2), 163-180.
Emerson, T.E., Hedman, K.M., & Simon, M.L. (2005). Marginal horticulturalists or maize agriculturalists? Archaeobotanical, paleopathological, and isotopic evidence relating to Langford Tradition maize consumption. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, 30(1), 67-118. https://doi.org/10.1179/mca.2005.003
Ferguson, R.B. (Ed.) (1972). The Middle Cumberland Culture. Vanderbilt University Publications in Anthropology, No 3, Nashville.
Fritz, G. (1990). Multiple pathways to farming in precontact Eastern North America. Journal of World Prehistory, 4,387–435.
Fritz, G. (1992). “Newer,” “better” maize and the Mississippian emergence: A critique of prime mover explanations. In W.I. Woods (Ed.), Late Prehistoric Agriculture: Observations from the Midwest (pp. 19–43). Springfield: Illinois Historic Preservation Agency.
Hatch, J.W. (1987). Mortuary indicators of organizational variability among late prehistoric chiefdoms in the Southeastern U.S. interior. In R.D. Drennan, & C.A. Uribe (Eds.). Chiefdoms in the Americas (pp. 9-18). Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.
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Karsten, J.K., Heins, S.E., Madden, G.D. & Sokhatskyi, M.P. (2015). Dental health and the transition to agriculture in prehistoric Ukraine: a study of dental caries. European Journal of Archaeology, 18(4), 562- 579. https://doi.org/10.1179/1461957115Y.0000000004
Kidder, T.R. (2004). Plazas as architecture: An example from the Raffman Site, Northeast Louisiana. American Antiquity, 69(3), 514-532. https://doi.org/10.2307/4128404
King, A. (2001). Long-term histories of Mississippian centers: The developmental sequence of Etowah and its comparison to Moundville and Cahokia. Southeastern Archaeology, 20, 1-17.
King, A. (2017). Mississippian Period: Overview. New Georgia Encyclopedia. 08 June 2017. Web. 28 April 2019.
Knight, Jr., V.J. (2006). Farewell to the southeastern ceremonial complex. Southeastern Archaeology, 25 (1), 1-5. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713375
Knight Jr., V.J., Brown, J.A., & Lankford, G.E. (2001). On the subject matter of Southeastern Ceremonial Complex art. Southeastern Archaeology, 20(2), 129-141. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713212
Kuemin Drews, N. (2000). A bioarchaeological perspective of Mississippian period warfare in west-central Tennessee. (MA thesis). Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL.
Larsen, C.S. (1981). Skeletal and dental adaptations to the shift to agriculture on the Georgia coast. Current Anthropology, 22(4), 422-423. https://doi.org/10.1086/202697
Larsen, C.S. (1991). Dental caries evidence for dietary change: An archaeological context. In M.A. Kelley (Ed.). Advances in dental anthropology (pp. 179-202). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Larsen, C.S. (2015). Bioarchaeology: interpreting behavior from the human skeleton, second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, R.B, Stout, C., & Wesson, C.B. (1998). The design of Mississippian towns. In R.B. Lewis, & C. Stout, (Eds.). Mississippian Towns and Sacred Spaces (pp. 1 -21). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Lubell, D., Jackes, M., Schwarcz, H., Knyf, M., & Meiklejohn, C., (1994). The Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Portugal: Isotopic and dental evidence of diet. Journal of Archaeological Science, 21(2), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1994.1022
Lukacs, J.R. (1992). Dental paleopathology and agricultural intensification in South Asia: New evidence from Bronze Age Harappa. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87(2), 133-150. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330870202
Lukacs, J.R. (1996). Sex differences in dental caries rates with the origin of agriculture in South Asia. Current Anthropology, 37(1), 147-153. https://doi.org/10.1086/204481
Lukacs, J.R. (2008). Fertility and agriculture accentuate sex differences in dental caries rates. Current Anthropology, 49(5), 901-914. https://doi.org/10.1086/592111
Lukacs, J.R., & Largaespada, L.L. (2006). Explaining sex differences in dental caries prevalence: Saliva, hormones, and “life?history” etiologies. American Journal of Human Biology, 4, 540-555. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20530
Mainfort Jr., R.C. (1996). Late period chronology in the Central Mississippi Valley: A Western Tennessee perspective. Southeastern Archaeology, 15(2), 172-181. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713075
Mainfort, R.C. & Moore, M.C. (1998). Graves Lake: A Late Mississippian Period village in Lauderdale County, Tennessee. IN M.J. O’Brien & R.C. Dunnell (Eds.) Changing perspectives on the archaeology of the Central Mississippi Valley (pp 99-123). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Martin, D.L., Harrod, R.P., & Pérez, V.R. (2013). Bioarchaeology: An integrated approach to working with human remains. New York, NY: Springer Press.
McNutt, C.H., Franklin, J.D., & Henry, E.R. (2012). New perspectives on Mississippian occupations in western Tennessee and northwestern Mississippi: Recent chronological and geophysical investigations at Chucalissa (40SY1), Shelby County, Tennessee. Southeastern Archaeology, 31(2), 231-250. https://doi.org/10.1179/sea.2012.31.2.007
Moore, M.C., Breitburg, E., Smith, K.E., & Trubitt, M.B. (2006). One hundred years of archaeology at Gordontown: A fortified Mississippian town in middle Tennessee. Southeastern Archaeology, 25(1), 89-109. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713382
Muller, J. (1989). The southern cult. In P. Galloway, (Ed.). The southeastern ceremonial complex, artifacts and analysis: The Cottonlandia Conference (pp. 11-26). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Patterson, D.K. (1986). Changes in oral health among prehistoric Ontario populations. Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology, 5(2), 3-13.
Pauketat, T.R. (1994). The ascent of chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian politics in native North America. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Pauketat, T.R. (2007). Chiefdoms and other archaeological delusions. New York: Altamira Press.
Polhemus, R. R. (1987). The Toqua Site-40MR6. Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Report of Investigations, 41.
Powell, M.L. (1985). The analysis of dental wear and caries for dietary reconstruction. In R.I. Gilbert, & J.H. Mielke, (Eds.). The analysis of prehistoric diets (pp.307-338). New York: Academic Press.
Reilly, F.K., & Garber, J. (Eds.). (2007). Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Robinson, R.K. (1976). Social status, stature, and pathology at Chucalissa (40SY1), Shelby County, Tennessee. (MA Thesis). University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN.
Scarry, C. M. (1993). Variability in Mississippian crop production strategies. IN C.M Scarry (Ed.), Foraging and Farming in the Eastern Woodlands (pp. 78-90), Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Scarry, C.M. (2008). Crop husbandry practices in North America’s eastern woodlands. In E. Reitz, C.M. Scarry, & S.J. Scudder, (Eds.). Case studies in environmental archaeology (pp. 391-404). New York: Springer.
Shea, A. B. (1977). Comparison of Middle Woodland and Early Mississippian subsistence patterns: analysis of plant remains from an archaeological site in the Duck River Valley, Tennessee, supplemented by the potentially exploitable native flora (Doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville).
Simon, M.L. (2017). Reevaluating the evidence for Middle Woodland maize from the Holding Site. American Antiquity, 82(1), 140-150. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2016.2
Šlaus, M., Bedi?, Ž., Raji? Šikanji?, P., Vodanovi?, M., & Domi? Kuni?, A. (2011). Dental health at the transition from the Late Antique to the early medieval period on Croatia's eastern Adriatic coast. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 21(5), 577-590. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.1163
Smith, B.E. (Ed.). (1990). The Mississippian emergence. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Smith, B.E. (2006). Eastern North America as an independent center of plant domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103(33), 12223–12228. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604335103
Smith, B.E. (2011). The cultural context of plant domestication in Eastern North America. Current Anthropology 52(Suppl 4), S471-S484 doi: 10.1086/659645
Smith, B.E. (2017). Tracing the initial diffusion of maize in North America. In N. Bolvin, R. Crassard, M. Petraglia, (Eds.). From colonization to globalization: species movements in human history (pp. 332-348). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, B.E., & Yarnell, R.A. (2009). Initial formation of an indigenous crop complex in eastern North America at 3800 B.P. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(16), 6561–6566. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901846106
Smith, G.P. The Walls phase and its neighbors. In D. Dye and C. Cox, (Eds.). Towns and temples along the Mississippi (pp. 135-169). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Smith, K.E. (1992). The Middle Cumberland Region: Mississippian Archaeology in North Central Tennessee. (PhD. Dissertation). Nashville: Vanderbilt University.
Stojanowski, C.M., & Duncan, W.N. (2015). Engaging bodies in the public imagination: Bioarchaeology as social science, science, and humanities. American Journal of Human Biology 27(1), 51-60. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.22522
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Armelagos, G.J. (2003). Bioarchaeology as anthropology. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, 13(1), 27-40.
Beahm, E.L. (2013). Mississippian polities in the Middle Cumberland region of Tennessee. (PhD Thesis). University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
Bass, Q.R., II. (1985). Sociopolitical and economic aspects of the Mississippian occupation in the Lower Tennessee River Valley. Manuscript on file, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro.
Beck Jr., R.A. (2003). Consolidation and hierarchy: Chiefdom variability in the Mississippian Southeast. American Antiquity, 68(4), 641-661.
Bense, J.A. (2016). Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: Paleoindian to World War I. New York, NY: Routledge.
Betsinger, T.K., & Smith, M.O. (2013). Caries prevalence and the late prehistoric Dallas phase: A regional cultural pattern of female maize consumption in late prehistoric East Tennessee. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, S150, 80.
Betsinger, T.K., & Smith, M.O. (2018). Regional differences in caries by sex and social status in late prehistoric East Tennessee. In S.C. Hodge, K. Schuler (Eds.), Bioarchaeology of the American Southeast: Approaches to bridging health and identity in the past (pp. 54-68). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Buikstra, J.E., & Beck, L.A. (Eds.). (2017). Bioarchaelogy: The contextual analysis of human remains. New York, NY: Routledge.
Buikstra, J.E., & Ubelaker, D.H. (1994). Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series.
Caselitz, P. (1998). Caries: Ancient plague of humankind. In K.W. Alt, F.W. Rösing, & M. Teschler-Nicola (Eds.), Dental Anthropology (pp. 203-226). Vienna: Springer.
Chapman, J. (2014). Tellico archaeology: 12,000 years of Native American history. University of Tennessee Press.
Cobb, C.R. (2003). Mississippian chiefdoms: How complex? Annual Review of Anthropology 32, 63 -84. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093244
Cobb, C.R., & Butler, B.M. (1992). The vacant quarter revisited: Late Mississippian abandonment of the lower Ohio Valley. American Antiquity, 67(4), 625-641. https://doi.org/10.2307/1593795
Cobb, J. E., & Faulkner, C. H. (1978). The Owl Hollow Project: Middle Woodland Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in the Eastern Highland Rim of Tennessee. Ms. on file, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC.
Dalan, R.A. (1997). The construction of Mississippian Cahokia. In T.R. Pauketat, & T.E. Emerson (Eds.), Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (pp. 89 -102). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Dowd, J.T. (2008). The Cumberland stone-box burials of middle Tennessee. Tennessee Archaeology, 3(2), 163-180.
Emerson, T.E., Hedman, K.M., & Simon, M.L. (2005). Marginal horticulturalists or maize agriculturalists? Archaeobotanical, paleopathological, and isotopic evidence relating to Langford Tradition maize consumption. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, 30(1), 67-118. https://doi.org/10.1179/mca.2005.003
Ferguson, R.B. (Ed.) (1972). The Middle Cumberland Culture. Vanderbilt University Publications in Anthropology, No 3, Nashville.
Fritz, G. (1990). Multiple pathways to farming in precontact Eastern North America. Journal of World Prehistory, 4,387–435.
Fritz, G. (1992). “Newer,” “better” maize and the Mississippian emergence: A critique of prime mover explanations. In W.I. Woods (Ed.), Late Prehistoric Agriculture: Observations from the Midwest (pp. 19–43). Springfield: Illinois Historic Preservation Agency.
Hatch, J.W. (1987). Mortuary indicators of organizational variability among late prehistoric chiefdoms in the Southeastern U.S. interior. In R.D. Drennan, & C.A. Uribe (Eds.). Chiefdoms in the Americas (pp. 9-18). Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.
Hutchinson, D.L., Larsen, C.S., Schoeninger, M.J., & Norr, L. (1998). Regional variation in the pattern of maize adoption and use in Florida and Georgia. American Antiquity, 63(3), 397-416.
Jolley, R.L. (1983). Mississippian adaptations to the Middle Cumberland drainage of Central Tennessee. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 8(1), 83-90. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20707901
Karsten, J.K., Heins, S.E., Madden, G.D. & Sokhatskyi, M.P. (2015). Dental health and the transition to agriculture in prehistoric Ukraine: a study of dental caries. European Journal of Archaeology, 18(4), 562- 579. https://doi.org/10.1179/1461957115Y.0000000004
Kidder, T.R. (2004). Plazas as architecture: An example from the Raffman Site, Northeast Louisiana. American Antiquity, 69(3), 514-532. https://doi.org/10.2307/4128404
King, A. (2001). Long-term histories of Mississippian centers: The developmental sequence of Etowah and its comparison to Moundville and Cahokia. Southeastern Archaeology, 20, 1-17.
King, A. (2017). Mississippian Period: Overview. New Georgia Encyclopedia. 08 June 2017. Web. 28 April 2019.
Knight, Jr., V.J. (2006). Farewell to the southeastern ceremonial complex. Southeastern Archaeology, 25 (1), 1-5. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713375
Knight Jr., V.J., Brown, J.A., & Lankford, G.E. (2001). On the subject matter of Southeastern Ceremonial Complex art. Southeastern Archaeology, 20(2), 129-141. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713212
Kuemin Drews, N. (2000). A bioarchaeological perspective of Mississippian period warfare in west-central Tennessee. (MA thesis). Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL.
Larsen, C.S. (1981). Skeletal and dental adaptations to the shift to agriculture on the Georgia coast. Current Anthropology, 22(4), 422-423. https://doi.org/10.1086/202697
Larsen, C.S. (1991). Dental caries evidence for dietary change: An archaeological context. In M.A. Kelley (Ed.). Advances in dental anthropology (pp. 179-202). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Larsen, C.S. (2015). Bioarchaeology: interpreting behavior from the human skeleton, second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, R.B, Stout, C., & Wesson, C.B. (1998). The design of Mississippian towns. In R.B. Lewis, & C. Stout, (Eds.). Mississippian Towns and Sacred Spaces (pp. 1 -21). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Lubell, D., Jackes, M., Schwarcz, H., Knyf, M., & Meiklejohn, C., (1994). The Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Portugal: Isotopic and dental evidence of diet. Journal of Archaeological Science, 21(2), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1994.1022
Lukacs, J.R. (1992). Dental paleopathology and agricultural intensification in South Asia: New evidence from Bronze Age Harappa. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87(2), 133-150. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330870202
Lukacs, J.R. (1996). Sex differences in dental caries rates with the origin of agriculture in South Asia. Current Anthropology, 37(1), 147-153. https://doi.org/10.1086/204481
Lukacs, J.R. (2008). Fertility and agriculture accentuate sex differences in dental caries rates. Current Anthropology, 49(5), 901-914. https://doi.org/10.1086/592111
Lukacs, J.R., & Largaespada, L.L. (2006). Explaining sex differences in dental caries prevalence: Saliva, hormones, and “life?history” etiologies. American Journal of Human Biology, 4, 540-555. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20530
Mainfort Jr., R.C. (1996). Late period chronology in the Central Mississippi Valley: A Western Tennessee perspective. Southeastern Archaeology, 15(2), 172-181. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713075
Mainfort, R.C. & Moore, M.C. (1998). Graves Lake: A Late Mississippian Period village in Lauderdale County, Tennessee. IN M.J. O’Brien & R.C. Dunnell (Eds.) Changing perspectives on the archaeology of the Central Mississippi Valley (pp 99-123). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Martin, D.L., Harrod, R.P., & Pérez, V.R. (2013). Bioarchaeology: An integrated approach to working with human remains. New York, NY: Springer Press.
McNutt, C.H., Franklin, J.D., & Henry, E.R. (2012). New perspectives on Mississippian occupations in western Tennessee and northwestern Mississippi: Recent chronological and geophysical investigations at Chucalissa (40SY1), Shelby County, Tennessee. Southeastern Archaeology, 31(2), 231-250. https://doi.org/10.1179/sea.2012.31.2.007
Moore, M.C., Breitburg, E., Smith, K.E., & Trubitt, M.B. (2006). One hundred years of archaeology at Gordontown: A fortified Mississippian town in middle Tennessee. Southeastern Archaeology, 25(1), 89-109. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40713382
Muller, J. (1989). The southern cult. In P. Galloway, (Ed.). The southeastern ceremonial complex, artifacts and analysis: The Cottonlandia Conference (pp. 11-26). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Patterson, D.K. (1986). Changes in oral health among prehistoric Ontario populations. Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology, 5(2), 3-13.
Pauketat, T.R. (1994). The ascent of chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian politics in native North America. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Pauketat, T.R. (2007). Chiefdoms and other archaeological delusions. New York: Altamira Press.
Polhemus, R. R. (1987). The Toqua Site-40MR6. Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Report of Investigations, 41.
Powell, M.L. (1985). The analysis of dental wear and caries for dietary reconstruction. In R.I. Gilbert, & J.H. Mielke, (Eds.). The analysis of prehistoric diets (pp.307-338). New York: Academic Press.
Reilly, F.K., & Garber, J. (Eds.). (2007). Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Robinson, R.K. (1976). Social status, stature, and pathology at Chucalissa (40SY1), Shelby County, Tennessee. (MA Thesis). University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN.
Scarry, C. M. (1993). Variability in Mississippian crop production strategies. IN C.M Scarry (Ed.), Foraging and Farming in the Eastern Woodlands (pp. 78-90), Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Scarry, C.M. (2008). Crop husbandry practices in North America’s eastern woodlands. In E. Reitz, C.M. Scarry, & S.J. Scudder, (Eds.). Case studies in environmental archaeology (pp. 391-404). New York: Springer.
Shea, A. B. (1977). Comparison of Middle Woodland and Early Mississippian subsistence patterns: analysis of plant remains from an archaeological site in the Duck River Valley, Tennessee, supplemented by the potentially exploitable native flora (Doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville).
Simon, M.L. (2017). Reevaluating the evidence for Middle Woodland maize from the Holding Site. American Antiquity, 82(1), 140-150. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2016.2
Šlaus, M., Bedi?, Ž., Raji? Šikanji?, P., Vodanovi?, M., & Domi? Kuni?, A. (2011). Dental health at the transition from the Late Antique to the early medieval period on Croatia's eastern Adriatic coast. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 21(5), 577-590. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.1163
Smith, B.E. (Ed.). (1990). The Mississippian emergence. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Smith, B.E. (2006). Eastern North America as an independent center of plant domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103(33), 12223–12228. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604335103
Smith, B.E. (2011). The cultural context of plant domestication in Eastern North America. Current Anthropology 52(Suppl 4), S471-S484 doi: 10.1086/659645
Smith, B.E. (2017). Tracing the initial diffusion of maize in North America. In N. Bolvin, R. Crassard, M. Petraglia, (Eds.). From colonization to globalization: species movements in human history (pp. 332-348). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, B.E., & Yarnell, R.A. (2009). Initial formation of an indigenous crop complex in eastern North America at 3800 B.P. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(16), 6561–6566. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901846106
Smith, G.P. The Walls phase and its neighbors. In D. Dye and C. Cox, (Eds.). Towns and temples along the Mississippi (pp. 135-169). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Smith, K.E. (1992). The Middle Cumberland Region: Mississippian Archaeology in North Central Tennessee. (PhD. Dissertation). Nashville: Vanderbilt University.
Stojanowski, C.M., & Duncan, W.N. (2015). Engaging bodies in the public imagination: Bioarchaeology as social science, science, and humanities. American Journal of Human Biology 27(1), 51-60. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.22522
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.